The availability of websites and applications on mobile phones affects our ability to look for jobs, acquire skills, perform work and earn money. Having a digital device and knowing how to operate it is a necessity. However, access to technology does not automatically translate into the ability to use it independently or benefit from the opportunities it offers, particularly for Indian women.
The ministry of statistics and programme implementation in its 80th round of the National Sample Survey (NSS), titled Comprehensive Modular Survey: Telecom(CMS:T) 2025,reports that internet facilities are available within the premises of 86.3% of households, 85.5% of households possess at least one smartphone, 73.4% people (15-29 yrs) own a mobile phone and internet is used (at least once in a day) by 92.7%. Around 94% (15 yrs and above) access the internet through mobile phones and mobile data. Looking at mobile phone use, 97.1% of people aged between 15 to 29 years reported using mobile phones, of whom 96.4 % used smartphones. The same survey also reports relatively small gender differences in the mobile phone use, with 98% of males and 96% of females using the mobile phones. Internet use was also widespread, with 97.1% of males and 94% of females reporting internet usage at least once a day.
But these digital resources are gendered. The National Family Health Survey-6 (NFHS-6) reports that 64.3% of females and 80.5% of males have ever used the internet. More women in urban areas than rural areas have ever used the internet. The gender gap in internet usage in urban areas is about 10%, which doubles for the rural areas (approx. 20%). CMS:T (2025),reveals a pronounced gender gap in mobile ownership for the age group of 15-29 years, as only 60.3% of females own a mobile phone, compared to 83.3% of males. The gender gap in evident in both rural and urban areas: rural approx. 24% points and urban approx. 11% points. The region-wise gap for women who have a mobile phone which they themselves use is about 20% (urban-77.6% and rural-57.4%). An additional layer of urban-rural divide is also visible. It is simply not an issue of whether a household has a mobile phone or an internet connection, but whether women have independent access to devices and can decide how and when to use them. This deeply affects the ability of women to acquire skills, access information, improve livelihoods and pursue opportunities of their choice.
{{/usCountry}}But these digital resources are gendered. The National Family Health Survey-6 (NFHS-6) reports that 64.3% of females and 80.5% of males have ever used the internet. More women in urban areas than rural areas have ever used the internet. The gender gap in internet usage in urban areas is about 10%, which doubles for the rural areas (approx. 20%). CMS:T (2025),reveals a pronounced gender gap in mobile ownership for the age group of 15-29 years, as only 60.3% of females own a mobile phone, compared to 83.3% of males. The gender gap in evident in both rural and urban areas: rural approx. 24% points and urban approx. 11% points. The region-wise gap for women who have a mobile phone which they themselves use is about 20% (urban-77.6% and rural-57.4%). An additional layer of urban-rural divide is also visible. It is simply not an issue of whether a household has a mobile phone or an internet connection, but whether women have independent access to devices and can decide how and when to use them. This deeply affects the ability of women to acquire skills, access information, improve livelihoods and pursue opportunities of their choice.
{{/usCountry}}Women also face the effects of gender inequities in education. According to NFHS-6, while 73.7% of the female population aged six years and above have ever attended school, only 46.4% of women have studied for 10 or more years, while for the men the figure stands at 54.6%. Significant regional differences are visible here as well. Approximately four in ten rural women have studied for at least a decade in school, compared with six in ten urban women. These differences matter because educational attainment can influence women’s ability to navigate digital interfaces, assess online information, use digital services and acquire more advanced skills and thereby capability of women to earn money and lead an economically empowered life seriously gets compromised.
The gender gap also appears in ICT skills, as shown in Chart 1. Across all indicators presented, women report lower levels of proficiency compared to men. This phenomenon occurs not only in the context of communication but also when it comes to such activities as sending messages with attachments, copy-paste operations, making presentations, using email, conducting online-banking transactions and reporting cybercrime. The differences are especially pronounced in online banking and reporting cybercrime. These are related not only to technical skills but also to women’s ability to manage money, to protect themselves on the internet and to get compensation in case of victimisation. Thus, a lack of digital skills may limit the potential benefits for women who have access to the internet. The gap in digital skills also reflects broader inequalities in education, access to resources and opportunities to learn through practice.
The mobile internet user journey involves several stages, beginning with mobile phone ownership to diverse daily mobile internet use. Women tend to fall behind men at all the stages of this journey, as shown in Chart 3. Having a mobile phone makes it easier, but internet awareness, internet adoption, and using the internet on a daily basis are some of the important steps one needs to take to eventually receive the benefits of the digital world and feel included.
The figures show that inequalities persist even after the initial barriers to mobile access have been crossed. This implies that accessibility does not account for the benefits individuals derive from the use of these devices. Although having a mobile device enables one to access the internet, other factors like awareness, adoption, and consistent utilisation as well as the ability to perform a variety of tasks online, are needed.
India has experienced rapid digitalisation through the expansion of infrastructure, affordable smartphones, and low-tariff mobile data. These developments have increased access to information and services and created new opportunities. However, the gender digital divide cannot be understood as a simple binary between those who are connected and those who are not. It should be understood as a layered digital inequality.
The first layer deals with access to infrastructure and devices. The second deals with ownership and control: whether women have their own devices or have to share with others and can use them on their terms. The third deals with digital skills and the ability to use technology for different purposes. The fourth deals with the outcomes of digital use: Whether they broaden women’s choices, increase their opportunities and enhance their agency.
These layers are fundamentally rooted in pre-existing socioeconomic disparities, including class, caste, education, income and digital capabilities. Many women stick to basic voice communication, social media, and entertainment, rather than using the mobile for productive economic, skill-oriented, or educational activities. Such differences should not be seen as reflecting a lack of interest or ability: They may reflect unequal access to opportunities resources and time, training and support.
Social norms and power relations within the household can also limit women's access to digital technology. In some households, male family members very often act as the gatekeepers, controlling women’s access to mobile phones or deciding when and how they may use them. Digital monitoring and limitations on internet use could also restrict privacy and autonomy. These constraints could be compounded by low levels of literacy, complicated interfaces, affordability concerns and women's financial dependence on other household members.
Amartya Sen’s capability approach offers a useful way to understand why access to a resource does not necessarily translate into empowerment. Capabilities consist of both the resources available to individuals and their agency to use those resources to pursue the lives they value and achieve a sense of achievement. The mere existence of a resource (mobile) is simply a pre-condition for choice. Women need autonomy and control to exercise their choices strategically. Mobile-enabled capabilities can strengthen women’s self-efficacy and personal agency and potentially enhance their bargaining power within patriarchal households. However, realising the benefits of technological interventions requires addressing the broader social structures, patriarchal power relations and cultural norms that constrain women’s choices.
(The views expressed are personal)
This article is authored by Nidhi Tewathia, associate professor, urban studies, Dr BR Ambedkar University, New Delhi.